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Source Walks: 9-6-95 and 10-8-95
Northeast of Hardscrabble Knob the rampart of the Shenandoah Range extends unbroken for 30 miles (48 km). The northwest slope of this mountain is almost a scarp with descent to South Branch of the Potomac River in only three horizontal miles (5 km). In contrast, the southeast slope falls away more gradually in a complex series of spurs and deeply incised streams eight or more miles (13 km) to the Shenandoah Valley. Punctuating the main ridge are a number of higher elevation areas similar to Hardscrabble Knob. These knobs stand guard at the head of Valleys that shelter some of the most remote habitat in the Eastern U.S. Viewed from these knobs in early spring the distant valley floors and lower slopes show the first delicate yellow and red flush of newly emerging leaves while the surrounding forest still has weeks to remain bare-limbed. Coupled with variations of soils, aspect and air drainage, this elevation difference of about 3000 ft. (910 meters) has resulted in considerable disjunct habitat and endemism, the full extent of which are still being revealed. In addition,the Range possesses most of the regions old growth forest, although most of this is of the high elevation "orchard type" with squat, contorted trees that were unsuitable for commercial exploitation.
The panorama of unbroken forest from these heights is a reminder of what the primitive Appalachians were like. Given that most of the Range is part of the George Washington National Forest and that it has a relatively low road density of less than a half mile (0.8 km) per 1000 acres (400 hectares), it has an almost unparalleled potential for the creation of large —in excess of 100,000 acres (40,000 hectares)— wilderness preserves in the East. It was from the summit of Reddish Knob, in fact, that President Clinton announced his much praised roadless area protection directive. Indeed the largest of these tracts, lying to the SW of Reddish Knob, has been proposed as a 65,000 acre (26,300 hectare) “Shenandoah Wilderness” (Mueller, 1991). Recently this proposed wilderness has been renamed the "Ernie Dickerman Wilderness" in honor of the most prominent eastern wilderness activist who is now deceased (Mueller 1999). This wilderness would encompass all of the already designated Ramsey's Draft Wilderness (see our section on Ramsey's Draft) and the entire upper North River and Little River watersheds. Contiguous with this tract, lying to the NE, beyond State Route 924, is another potential wilderness with Bother Knob as its sentinel. Unlike Reddish Knob, the summit of Bother Knob is unmarred by a road, although Forest Road 85 runs along its base. In its relative solitude, Bother Knob looks down on a deep valley with the unpromising name of “Skidmore Fork”, but which, in its upper reaches, contains one of the last stands in the region of old growth Hemlock-Northern Hardwoods.
Shenandoah Mountain is home to the endemic Cowknob Salamander (Plethodon punctatus). It also harbors a number of more widespread salamanders and it is possible in a short stroll along a mountain stream to uncover five or more species. Also endemic is at least one millipede, the Shenandoah Mountain Xystodermid (Nannaria Shenandoah) and a globally-rare variety of Least Trillium (Trillium pusillum var. monticulum). This Mountain is known for its breeding populations of disjunct northern birds such as the Red Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra), which has a circumpolar range, as well as others that breed at high elevations on the Allegheny Mountains and on Whitetop and Mt. Rogers Other disjuncts include isolated stands of Paper Birch (Betula papyrifera ) and Drooping Bluegrass (Poa languida ) ( Smith, 1991). According to biologists the probability is very high that a number of other rare species are present as well.
If, for the moment, one puts out of mind the environmental mayhem caused by the automobile, the winding drive up Virginia State Route 924 to the Shenandoah crest is always exhilarating. The more so in early September when summer heat still blankets the Valley. Stately Tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera) groves of the lower Briery Branch give way to dry Chestnut Oak ( Quercus prinus )-pine forests of the middle slopes and these in turn yield gradually to a cooler and moister regime of Northern Red Oak (Quercus rubra), birches and Canada Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) of a climatic zone diverted here from the north.
Our first stop is at the junction of Rt. 924 with Forest Road 85 in Briery Branch Gap. A spot inventory at the junction shows the forest to be a patchy survivor of human abuse, now mending, but with few really large trees. However it is, here at an elevation of about 3700 ft. (1130 meters), quite different from the Chestnut Oak forest below. In rough order of abundance the canopy species are Black Birch ( Betula lenta), Canada Hemlock (apparently Adelgid infested), Black Cherry (Prunus serotina), Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), Red Maple (Acer rubrum ), Northern Red and White ( Quercus alba) Oaks with Serviceberry (Amelanchier sp) and Striped Maple ( Acer pensylvanicum) in the understory. The shrub layer consists of Mountain Holly (Ilex montana,), Mountain. Laurel (Kalmia latifolia), Mountain Fetterbush (Pieris floribunda), Witch Hazel ( Hamamelis virginiana ) and, along the road, Staghorn Sumac ( Rhus typhina). The patchwork of deciduous trees, Hemlock and the road opening create a number of habitats for different herbs. Hay-scented Fern (Dennstaedtia punctilobula ) dominates, but Christmas Fern (Polystichum acrostichoides ), White Snakeroot (Eupatorium rugosum), Hog Peanut ( Amphicarpa bracteata), and Mountain Aster (Aster acuminatus) are also common. In more shaded spots, especially around Hemlocks, Partridge Berry (Mitchella repens), Intermediate Shield Fern (Dryopteris intermedia) and a little Ground Pine (Lycopodium flabelliforme) may be found.
Reddish Knob lies a little over a mile to the southwest, with FR85 passing along its base. About a mile along this road a short road forks off and runs to the summit. Because of the time factor an inventory between Route 924 and this fork was sketchy. However it is apparent that the forest along this stretch of FR 85, which lies at about 4000 ft. (1220 meters) asl, is dominantly Northern Red Oak but also with a number of mesic species such as Yellow ( Betula alleganiensis ) and Black Birchs, Shagbark Hickory ( Carya ovata) and Butternut (Juglans cinerea) and with Flowering Raspberry (Rubus odoratus) still in full bloom on the roadside in September.
At the fork, at an elevation of perhaps 4200 ft. (1280 meters), the forest is more mesic than at Route 924 and consequently more diverse, although it contains more northern and high elevation species. It is dominated by Northern Red Oak but there is no White Oak, since the latter is usually restricted to elevations below 4000 ft. Red Maple, Black Cherry, Yellow Birch, Serviceberry and American Chestnut (Castanea dentata) sprouts occur, and Striped Maple is very abundant and is joined by Fire Cherry ( Prunus pensylvanica ). In the understory. Shrubs include Witch Hazel, Mountain Holly and some Mountain Laurel and Mountain Fetterbush. Increased elevation is reflected in the presence of Mountain Ash (Pyrus americana) seedlings and in the greater abundance of Mountain Aster. White Snakeroot and Hay-scented Fern are abundant along the road. Other herbs are Marginal Shield Fern (Dryopteris marginalis), Crinkled Hair Grass (Deschampsia flexuosa), Plume Lily ( Smilacina racemosa), a Clintonia, probably Yellow ( Clintonia borealis), Wild Sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis ) and Fly Poison (Amianthium muscætoxicum). On the NW talus slope there is Rock Fern (Polypodium virginianum) and Wild Liveforever (Sedum telephioides).
From the fork it is a short hike to the summit along the road which ascends along a steep northeast-facing slope. Along this slope the trees of the dominantly Northern Red Oak forest become increasingly orchard-like and soils are moist enough for a diversity of mesic species. There is Yellow Birch, Sugar Maple ( Acer saccharum), hawthorn ( Crataegus sp), Thornless Blackberry (Rubus canadensis ), Alternate-leaf Dogwood (Cornus alternifolia), Beaked Hazelnut (Corylus cornuta), Minnie-bush (Menziesia pilosa), Bear Oak (Quercus ilicifolia ), Choke Cherry ( Prunus virginiana ) and clumps of vigorous Mountain Maple ( Acer spicatum). Poison Ivy (Rhus radicans) occurs here beyond its usual elevation limit. Pale Touch-Me Not (Impatiens pallida) and Thin-leaved Sunflower (Helianthus decapetalus ) are among roadside herbs.
As the road rounds the Mountain to the south side Red Oak becomes much more stunted and mesic species, except Yellow Birch, drop out. On the open roadside slope the first Blueberry (Vaccinium sp )occurs with Wild Liveforever, Climbing False Buckwheat (Polygonum scandens), Silverrod (Solidago bicolor), Southern Bellflower ( Campanula divaricata) and Stiff Aster ( Aster linariifolius).
The top of Reddish Knob, at 4397 ft. (1340 meters) is open due to human intervention in the form of a parking lot, but the upper slopes are covered by a dwarf forest of Northern Red Oak little more than 20 ft. (6 meters) high. Yellow Birch is a minor component. In one place this beautiful and interesting forest had been clearcut quite contrary to its regulations, by the US Forest Service for the benefit of hang gliding, an activity now banned. Small trees and shrubs, among them Fire Cherry, Minnie-bush, Hazelnut, Mountain Laurel, Mountain Fetterbush, Red Raspberry (Rubus idaeus) Allegheny Blackberry (Rubus allegheniensis) and Black Chokeberry ( Aronia melanocarpa) have come up in this opening. Also present on the summit are Witch Hazel and American Chestnut sprouts.
Northern Red Oak on the summit is vigorous and at this season bore clusters of large acorns. One characteristic of these oaks is their thick, leathery leaves which differ greatly from the thin leaves of low elevation Northern Red Oaks. This characteristic may signal the presence of a variant of this tree adapted to the strong drying winds on this summit.
As one passes around to the north side of the upper slope, just below the summit, an assemblage of northern and mountain species is encountered. Included are Mountain Maple, Mountain Ash, Wild Sarsaparilla, Intermediate Shield Fern, Mountain Bindweed ( Polygonum cilinode), Red Raspberry and an unidentified alumroot (Heuchera sp ). Also present are such widespread species as Black Cherry, Common Greenbriar ( Smilax rotundifolia), Christmas Fern and Indian Turnip (Arisæma triphyllum). An aster common on the summit was Blue Wood Aster (Aster cordifolius ).Virtually the only evidence of bird life noted on this upland was the calls of Ravens (Corvus corax) which seem always to be present.
A spot inventory was done along FR 85 at about 0.8 mile (1.3 km) NE of the junction with Rt. 924. This location, a way station to Bother Knob, lies at about 3800 ft. (1160 meters) asl. As at other locations along this ridge, the area is recovering from past abuses which left openings in the forest as well as plantations of alien species such as Norway Spruce (Picea abies) and Red Pine (Pinus resinosa) and native Red Spruce ( Picea rubens) and White Pine (Pinus strobus). However the most abundant canopy species here is Hemlock (apparently Adelgid-free) with Northern Red Oak, Black Birch, Red Maple, Black Cherry, Black Locust and Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida). There are also scattered beautiful large White Oaks with spreading crowns, possibly indicative of growth to maturity in openings. Striped Maple is abundant in the understory while the shrub layer is dominated by Mountain Fetterbush up to ten feet (3 meters) tall, large vigorous Mountain Holly and lesser amounts of Mountain Laurel. Also noted were American Chestnut sprouts and a single Chestnut Oak, here considerably above its normal elevation range.
Hay-scented Fern is the dominant herb, as is the case for many mountain summits, and the Blue Wood Aster is more abundant than on Reddish Knob. Other herbs of note are White Snakeroot, Heath Aster (Aster pilosus), Whorled Loosestrife (Lysimachia quadrifoila) and grasses. Most of these herbs are concentrated in openings and are excluded in the dense shade of evergreen trees and shrubs.
Another spot inventory was done at about one mile (1.6 km.) from the junction at a 3869 ft. (1179 meter) benchmark. While the forest here is similar to that at the previous spot inventory, the following additional species were noted: Yellow Birch, Hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana), Intermediate Shield Fern, Indian Turnip, Creeping Five-leaf ( Potentilla simplex/canadensis,) White Grass ( Leersia virginica) and Wild Liveforever. The mint Field Basil ( Satureja vulgaris ) is abundant along the road.
About 1.8 miles (2.9 km.) to the NE from the last stop the road intersects a southwest-tending ridge at about 4200 ft. (1280 meters) elevation. A faint trail along the crest of this ridge leads to Bother Knob, about a mile distant. At the point of intersection, Panicled Hawkweed ( Hieracium paniculatum ) and a few small plants of Red Raspberry were noted. The forest along this ridge is primarily Northern Red Oak, but with substantial Yellow Birch on the northwest side. Also common are Hemlock (apparently Adelgid-free), Black Locust, Black Cherry, Red Maple, Table Mountain Pine ( Pinus pungens ), Striped Maple and Mountain Fetterbush. Hay-scented Fern, mostly brown (perhaps due to frost) was the dominant ground cover, but Crinkled Hairgrass and Mountain Bindweed were also common. Ravens called and two cavorted high above the slope while flocks of Juncos (Junco hyemalis) foraged in the undergrowth. If the usual pattern is followed these Juncos will appear in the Shenandoah Valley late in October.
Farther along the trail Common Greenbrier is conspicuous in its lush growth, climbing up Hemlocks and Mountain Fetterbush. Nearby are thorned Blackberries and near the trail Wild Strawberries (Fragaria virginiana). One of the commonest plants underfoot on the trail is alien, Field Sorrel ( Rumex acetosella ). Here also are anthills, not particularly large, and inhabited by medium-sized ants with black abdomens and red thoraxes — apparently identical to those noted by us on the Blue Ridge’s Big Levels Plateau.
The rock outcrops on prominent elevations of the ridge are thin-bedded and cross-bedded sandstones probably of the Pocono Formation (Rader and Evans, 1993). Characteristically Common Polypody or Rock Fern is associated with this rock, as is Wild Liveforever. A little Beaked Hazelnut and wild gooseberry (Ribes sp.) grow nearby.
At this point the ridge turns rather sharply northwest toward the Bother Summit. Here we come upon several Virginia Pines ( Pinus virginiana) with cones. These apparently healthy trees, perhaps 15 ft. (4.6 meters) in length, lie almost prostrate, seemingly under severe stress although surrounding hardwoods remain upright. It is possible that they are in this way responding to an elevation of perhaps 4300 ft. (1310 meters) asl, since it is unusual to see this species much above 3000 ft. (910 meters). Also, a little way down the southeast slope there is at least one small grove of Beech (Fagus grandifolia), the only example of this species seen on the mountain thus far.
The summit of Bother Knob is an artificially maintained “bald” or meadow which unfortunately is dominated by alien vegetation. Conspicuous are Timothy ( Phleum pratense), Field Sorrel and Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) although the latter may also be native. Known natives such as Creeping Five-leaf and White Snakeroot are also present. Some of the Northern Red Oaks, which dominate the meadow’s edge, are very contorted, hollow and show signs of repeated fires. Some Black Cherries are also severely deformed by the wind and in addition are severely infected by Black Knot Fungus (Dibotryon morbosum).
Yellow Birch is quite abundant on the north side of the knob but drops out and is replaced by Black Birch on the west and south sides which also have Pitch Pines. A small amount of alum root (Heuchera sp.) was noted at the base of an oak here.
On the NE side of the knob, just below the summit, there is a jumble of large sandstone blocks. Growing from among these are vigorous canes of Red Raspberry seeking out the sun thus provided by the lack of trees, very much as this species was found to occur on Hardscrabble and Reddish Knobs.
According to Virginia’s Division of Natural Heritage (Smith, 1991), Millet Grass (Milium effusum), Ground Juniper (Juniperus communus ) and the Smooth Green Snake (Opheodrys vernalis) are rare species that occur on Bother Knob. However, none of these was seen by us.
Southwest of Reddish Knob
Source Walks: 6-13-00 and 6-14-00
Described here are three inventory traverses, two on southeast slopes of a local prominence a little less than a mile (1.6 km) southwest of Reddish Knob, and one on a gently sloping projection that overlooks the Valley of the South Branch of the Potomac River.
Our first inventory, which began in the early afternoon of 6-13-00, was preceded by a very hard thundershower that blew down our kitchen tarp. The inventory extended a little down-slope from a road to an electronic installation through perhaps a half acre (0. 2 ha) in a loop traverse. Elevations at this location are near 4200 feet (1281 m) asl. The only exposed rock seen by us was sandstone. However, soils appeared to be high in organic matter that was well incorporated into the mineral matter. It is possible that the dominant bedrock here is actually a mudstone, as a rock of this type is exposed up-slope. A soil sample (no 1) taken from among Crinkled Hairgrass and sedges had an initial pH of 5.0 and the same value 23 hours later.
The canopy here, as in the area quite generally, was dominated by squat, contorted broad-crowned Northern Red Oak, perhaps averaging in the range of 20 inches (0.5 m) dbh. Other canopy species were minor and consisted of Black Birch, Red Maple, Black Locust, small and crooked Black Cherry, scattered Canada Hemlock, seemingly little or not infested by the Adelgid, and American Chestnut sprouts. It should be mentioned however, that signs of the Adelgid had earlier been seen by us at the junction of State Route 924 and Forest Road 85 at about 3700 feet (1130 m) asl. Small and understory trees included especially Striped Maple, the hawthorn Crataegus flabellata and seedlings of Mountain Ash. Shrubs were dominated by vigorous Witch Hazel accompanied by Mountain Fetterbush, Mountain Laurel in bloom and Upland Low Blueberry, No vines were seen.
Ground cover was dominated by flowering Crinkled Hairgrass and various sedges, including Carex pensylvanica and C. gracilescens, which is said to characterize "rich woods and thickets" (Strausbaugh and Core, 1977). Other species were Creeping Five-leaf, in this case Potentilla canadensis, Mealy Bellwort (Uvularia perfoliata), Curtis Goldenrod ( Solidago curtisii), Downy Wood Violet (Viola sororea), Plume Lily with very narrow leaves, budding Black Cohosh ( Cimicifuga racemosa) Woodland Meadow Parsnip (Thaspium trifoliatum ), Bluets (Houstonia caerulea ), abundant small Prenanthes, Cutleaf Goldenrod ( Solidago arguta var boottii), possible Arrowleaf Violet (Viola sagittata), the woodrushes Luzula multiflora and L. echinata, Downy Many Knees ( Polygonatum pubescens), an unidentified Heuchera ( Heuchera sp), Lovage ( Ligusticum canadense ), Filmy Angelica ( Angelica triquinata ), Indian Turnip, Panicled Hawkweed, Mountain Oat Grass (Danthonia compressa), more Bluets in bloom, a little Wild Geranium (Geranium maculatum), a trace of stunted Horse Balm ( Collinsonia canadensis ), White Wood Aster (Aster divaricatus), likely Basil Balm ( Monarda clinopodia), vigorous flowering Poke Milkweed ( Asclepias exaltata), Purple Bedstraw (Galium latifolium), also in bloom, Bigleaf Aster (Aster macrophyllus ), Lady Fern ( Athyrium filix-femina), a single culm of the alien Orchard Grass ( Dactylus glomerata), Nodding Fescue (Festuca obtusa), Four-leaved Yam (Dioscorea quaternata), and Field Sorrel. Mosses noted were Mnium affine, Thuidium delicatulum, Leucbryum glaucum and unidentified species of Dicranum and Polytrichum, all on soil, Hedwigia ciliata on sandstone and Dicranum viride and an unidentified Entodon on bases of Northern Red Oak. An unidentified species of Russula was the only fungus seen.
Both the song and the call of the Veery ( Catharus fuscescens) were heard frequently, also the song of the Hermit Thrush (Catharus guttatus) and the call of the Great Crested Flycatcher (Myiarchus crinitus). Ravens were also heard frequently in a great variety of sounds. Butterflies included a colorful fritillary, possibly the Atlantis ( Speyeria atlantis), and a number of rapidly moving yellow swallowtails.
In our second traverse we made a loop to the east, first climbing the slope of the local prominence above and perhaps reaching an elevation of the order of a 100 feet (30 m) above the road. This hill appeared at least in part to be underlain by a reddish mudstone with thin beds of siltstone. It is likely that these rocks are part of the Pocono Formation of Mississippian age (Rader and Evans, 1993). Characteristically the mismanagement of the U S Forest Service here has allowed a large open scar to continue eroding and depositing mud and silt down-slope – as was particularly evident after the hard rain.
The canopy on this slope was much as below, but more open. Northern Red Oak was virtually the only canopy species and Striped Maple dominated the understory. Some Bear Oak (Quercus ilicifolia) also occurred at the forest edge. Other species successively noted were Whorled Loosestrife in bloom, Mountain Aster, Crinkled Hairgrass, abundant Witch Hazel, a little May Apple ( Podophyllum peltatum), Carex gracilescens and Lovage in bloom. Here a soil sample (no 2) was collected. This soil appeared similar to that of no 1, with organic matter well integrated. Initial pH was 4.7 and the same value was obtained 23 hours later.
Continuing, we saw Wrinkle-leaf Goldenrod (Solidago rugosa), Curtis Goldenrod, the woodrush Luzula multiflora, abundant White Snakeroot, particularly in semi-openings; then Woodland Meadow Parsnip, more Lovage, the moss Dicranum viride, Mountain Bindweed in bloom and the fungus Trametes versicolor on rotting oak. Following were Virginia Waterleaf ( Hydrophyllum virginianum ), Downy Wood Violet, Wild Geranium, Steele's Meadowrue ( Thalictrum steeleanum), abundant Mealy Bellwort, Nodding Fescue, Black Cohosh and Columbine (Aquilegia canadensis), also in bloom. Next seen were Upland Low Blueberry ( Vaccinium pallidum ), the Cabbage White Butterfly ( Pieris rapae), Purple Bedstraw, the mosses Leucodon julaceus and Platygyrium repens on rotting Northern Red Oak, an Eastern Phoebe (Sayornis phoebe ), again abundant Mealy Bellwort, Black Flies (Simuliidae), seedlings of Mountain Ash, an unidentified goldenrod (Solidago sp), a patch of Yarrow (Achillea millefolium ), vigorous Poke Milkweed in full bloom and an unidentified Satyr butterfly ( Euptychia sp).
Our overnight here was memorable for the abundance of biting and otherwise annoying insects that exceeded anything this reporter had experienced in the Appalachians. Among these legions mosquitoes led both in numbers and time of presence. They grew in number as darkness fell and were accompanied by both Black Flies and Punkies (Ceratopogonidae ?), while midges (Chironomidae ?) swarmed during daylight hours. Compensating somewhat were the songs, as day broke, of Veeries and a number of unidentified birds.
In midmorning of 6-14-00 an inventory was done of a gently sloping bench that overlooks the South Branch of the Potomac Valley. Elevation here is also near 4200 feet and the aspect west, although almost flat. The area inventoried was of the order of an acre (0.4 ha), and weather conditions were sunny, cool and pleasant.
As at the previously inventoried sites, the canopy consisted almost entirely of squat, contorted Northern Red Oak, here in a very open distribution on a field of jumbled sandstone blocks. Other very minor canopy species consisted of Red Maple and Black Birch, whereas Striped Maple dominated the undestory with scattered Hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana), Choke Cherry and Mountain Ash. Shrubs were diverse and included abundant Witch Hazel, blooming Mountain Laurel, Mountain Holly, Red Raspberry, Allegheny Blackberry, Minnie-bush, Upland Low Blueberry, Early Low Blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) and Black Huckleberry ( Gaylussacia bacatta). The only vines seen were Common and Hispid Greenbriers (Smilax rotundifolia and S. hispida).
Herbs noted were abundant Fly Poison in bloom, Hay-scented Fern, White Snakeroot, Mountain Aster, Curtis Goldenrod, Plume Lily, Mountain Bellwort (Uvularia pudica), Arrow-leaf Aster (Aster sagittifolius), Creeping Five-leaf, Bigleaf Aster, Sweet-scented Bedstraw (Galium triflorum), Whorled Loosestrife, Nodding Fescue, the uncommon grass Calamagrostis porteri, Bunchflower (Veratrum parviflorum ), Carex gracilescens, Wide-leaved Joe-pye Weed ( Eupatorium purpureum ), Allegheny Crowfoot ( Ranunculus allegheniensis ), very abundant blooming Crinkled Hairgrass, Canada Mayflower ( Maianthemum canadese ), Painted Trillium ( Trillium undulatum), Indian Cucumberroot (Medeola virginiana), a little Common Burdock (Arctium minus), Rock Fern, Carrion Flower ( Smilax herbacea), Wild Sarsaparilla, Four-leaved Yam ( Dioscorea quaternata), Carex pensylvanica, C. appalachica, the alien Canada Bluegrass ( Poa compressa ), very abundant Mountain Oatgrass and,on rock, the following: Carex communis, Wild Liveforever, Southern Bellflower and a little of the forest bluegrass Poa alsodes.
Rocks here bore a number of conspicuous macro-lichens, including Lasalia umbilicaria and an unidentified species of Xanthoparmelia. Mosses noted were Leucobryum glaucum, Dicranum viride, Poltrichum juniperinum and an unidentified Polytrichum.
The floras of these three sites are characterized by a combination of northern, montane and southern / widespread species in a decidedly acidic environment. However soils in the first two sites inventoried appear quite rich, as indicated by the presence of Black Cohosh, Mealy Bellwort, Columbine and other mesic herbs, and this may reflect a moderately good nutrient source such as the observed mudstone in these areas. However the canopy species are severely restricted, apparently by low growing season temperatures and high winds that result from these elevations. It appears that taller woody plants in general bear the brunt of these conditions since most woody vines common to lower elevations also do not occur as well.
Return to Reddish Knob and Vicinity
Described here are two major inventories, including one along the Bald Mountain Road and one done during an ascent of Reddish Knob. Minor inventories at a camp site near Sugar Grove and one at the junction of FR 85 and State Route 924 (Briery Branch Gap) are also included.
Bald Mountain Road
Source walk: 8-20-01
This inventory traverse began at 12:30 at the Bald Mountain Road – FR 85 junction, extended about1/3 mile ( 0.5 km) along the Road and included two forest interior sites at this point.
Elevation at the start of the traverse was about 3950 feet ( 1205 m) asl on a very gentle slope to the south. The terrain along the Road was quite open, and plant density and diversity were highest on the east road bank. This condition is reflected in our inventory's results.
Unfortunately, time did not permit a thorough survey of bedrock and soil conditions. However an impression was gained of quite sandy soil with only modest rock content along the roadway Unfortunately also, the road bank had recently been treated with herbicide to suppress the vegetation (a contribution of the ignorant and irresponsible Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries). However, although damaged, most this vegetation still remained and could be identified.
Initially conspicuous on the road-side were contorted and stunted Northern Red Oak, smaller White Pine, Table Mountain Pine (Pinus pungens) and Red maple. The fungus Spotted Bolete (Boletus affinis) was found by us under Northern Red Oak. On the open east bank we saw Turkey Beard (Xerophyllum asphodeloides ) and at the forest edge, Canada Hemlock, with some Adelgid infestation, Mountain Fetterbush and large, vigorous Witch Hazel. Then again in the open, were abundant Wild Sarsaparilla, Boott's Goldenrod (Solidago boottii ), Curtis' Goldenrod, Mountain Oat Grass, White Snakeroot in full bloom and Whorled Loosestrife. Where tall plants were few, mosses and lichens proliferated and were punctuated by plants of Teaberry (Gaultheria procumbens ) and Trailing Arbutus (Epigaea repens).
Moving onward, we saw Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida ), the excellently edible fungus Suillus pictus (which is said to favor White Pine), then Laccaria laccata, which is also edible, and is usually found - as here-"on waste soil under conifers" (Phillips, 1991). Again, at the forest edge, there was Striped Maple, and, in more open areas, Dwarf Iris ( Iris verna), Tree Clubmoss ( Lycopodium obscurum), Early Low Blueberry, Featherbells ( Stenanthium gramineum ) in bloom; then Black Huckleberry, Minnie-bush, Black Chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa ), the dry environment indicator haircap Polytrichum juniperinum, Sassafras ( Sassafras albidum), Bear Oak and more Upland Low Blueberry.
Next seen were Black Birch, Silverrod (Solidago bicolor) in bloom, Slender Goldenrod, also in bloom, the preposterously-named "Cow Wheat" (Melampyrum linrare ), Bracken Fern (Ptridium aquilinum ), the aromatic fungus Russula fragrantissima, followed by Ground Pine, abundant seedlings of Northern Red Oak and Mountain Bellwort.
We now saw a succession of fungi that included an unidentified species of Cortinarius (but see later), the edible puffball Lycoperdon perlatum, Lactarius chrysorrheus, Lactarius lignyotis (some variants are found in spruce bogs, according to Phillips) and the very poisonous Amanita virosa (Destroying Angel).
After traversing the 1/3 mile, the Road was intersected at a small angle on its west side by a marked trail. Elevation at the Road-trail intersection was about 3850 feet (1174 m) asl. This trail was now followed down-slope toward the northwest for perhaps 1/5 mile (0.3 km). The canopy along the trail at first consisted of small, likely young, Northern Red Oak, Black Birch and Hemlock, with the largest trees about 12 inches (0.3 m) dbh. Ameican Chestnut sprouts and Mountain Holly formed an understory, while a shrub layer was comprised of Mountain Laurel, Mountain Fetterbush and Witch Hazel, while sparse ground cover included Mountain Aster, Teaberry, Medeola, scattered Painted Trillium and seedlings of Cucumbertree (Magnolia acuminata).
At an elevation of perhaps 3800 feet (1160 m) a soil temperature measurement (T-210) was made and a soil sample taken. The temperature, at a depth of 5 inches (13 cm) was 17.0 deg C. The soil sample, from a depth of 2-3 inches (5-8 cm) had a pH of 4.0. This soil was of the mor type and rich in sandstone fragments.
Also collected here was the first of our bryophyte samples, which were to be identified under the microscope by R. Hunsucker. As in all our samples, liverworts are identified by the symbol (Li). Found in sample number 1, from the bark of various hardwoods, were the following:
Brachythecium oxycladon, Dicranum viride, Frullania asagrayana (Li), Hypnum pallescens, Platygyrium repens
Found in the vicinity of this sample were Painted Trillium, Mountain Bellwort and the fungus Amanita virosa.
Bryophyte sample number 2 was now collected from soil over sandstone, yielding:
Chiloscyphus profundus (Li), Hedwigia ciliata, Hypnum curvifolium, Hypnum pallescens, Leucobryum glaucum, Polytrichum ohioense, Ulota hutchinsiae
The Hypnum was quite conspicuous and Hemlock seedlins common here.
We next came upon Black Bear ( Ursus americanus) scat, grayish-brown in color and with the appearance of decayed moss, but likely composed of other vegetable matter. In any case, it had only a faint odor and appeared to consist entirely of short plant fibers.
Subsequently sample 3 was collected from the bark of Table Mountain Pine (a minor component here) and Hemlock; but only the following were found:
Dicranella sp (sterile) on Hemlock base, Hypnum pallescens
Also seen here were Juncos, and on soil intergrowths of Polytrichum, Hypnum and Leucobryum mosses, as identified by the unaided eye.
As we moved along the trail, Chestnut Oak became conspicuous both as mature trees and as seedlings. Accompanying these were scattered Black Locust, large, vigorous Witch Hazel, abundant Mountain Laurel and Mountain Fetterbush, some Upland Low Blueberry, seedlings of Mountain Holly and the fungus Leotia lubrica ("Jelly Babies").
Bryophyte sample number 4 was next collected from soil, and the following species were identified:
Dicranella heteromalla, Hypnum curvifolium, Leucobryum glaucum, Polytrichum commune
This was followed by sample number 5 from the bark of several undifferentiated hardwoods, which bore the following:
Brachythecium oxycladon, Campylium chrysophyllum, Dicranella heteromalla, Frullania asagrayana (Li), Frulannia brittoniae (Li), Hypnum pallescens, Platygyrium repens, Thuidium delicatulum, Ulota crispa
Collected in the same vicinity from a variety of down wood was bryophyte sample 6, which contained:
Dicranella heteromalla, Dicranum viride, Frullania asagrayana (Li), Homomallium adnatum, Hypnum pallescens, Platygyrium repens, Rhodobryum roseum
At this point we ended our traverse and retraced our steps to the Road. After identifying more Crinkled Hairgrass, we continued south along the Road for perhaps 100 feet (30 m) and again entered the forest, but this time on the east side. The elevation here was near 3800 feet (1160 m) and the forest quite different from that on the Road's west side. Here were large (two feet / 0.6 m or more dbh), widely spaced Northern Red Oak with heavy contorted and frequently broken limbs. A gentle slope with a southeast aspect featured a large spring or seep with a substantial discharge along a shallow swale but with little or no channel. The presence of this spring had led the construction of a small pond a considerable number of years ago.
First noted in the ground flora of dryer areas was abundant Calamagrostis porteri, then the edible fungus Cantharellus cinnabarinus, and in the seep area, the manna grass Glyceria melicaria. Also noted was the edible fungus Mycena pura growing under a Red Maple.
Our bryophyte sample 7 was collected here from a variety of substrates and, as expected, contained a diverse flora as follows:
Brachythecium rutabulum, Bryhnia graminicolor, Chiloscyphus cuspidatus (Li), Chiloscyphus profundus (Li), Dicranella heteromalla, Hypnum imponens, Leucobryum glaucum, Mnium cuspidatum, Scapania nemorosa (Li), Sematophylum adnatum, Thuidium delicatulum
Canopy trees noted in addition to the large Northern Red oak were Black Oak ( Quercus velutina ), Chestnut Oak and, as already mentioned, Red Maple. Hemlock occurred mostly as small understory saplings, while shrubs included large Witch Hazel and, in places, dense thickets of Mountain Laurel and Mountain Fetterbush, which signaled the relatively thin canopy here. Other common herbs were Autumn Bent Grass (Agrostis perennans), Sweet White Violet (Viola blanda ), Medeola, Crooked-stem Aster (Aster prenanthoides), Cinnamon Fern (Osmunda cinnamomea), Trail Rush (Juncus tenuis), Lady Fern (Athyrium filix-femina ), Downy Wood Violet, Carex radiata and Wild Sarsaparilla. Associated with the manna grass on the wettest ground, were Carex gynandra, Turtlehead (Chelone glabra) and the rush Juncus effusus. In one place a few plants of the poisonous Indian Tobacco (Lobelia inflata) were associated with the equally poisonous fungus Jack-O-Lantern ( Omphalotus illudens).
A soil temperature determination (T-211) was made in the dark, wet soil of the seep area at the usual depth of five inches. The value, T=17.0 deg C obtained, was identical to that found on the Road's west side at essentially the same elevation and, as here, on a southerly aspect.
Continuing our survey, we noted a quite large White Oak and the widespread occurrence of the sedge Carex gracilescens, which, according to Strausbaugh and Core (1977) usually occurs in rich woods. We here also came to a peculiar trampled area surrounding a 10 inch (0.25 m) dbh Hemlock. It seems possible that this marked a location frequented by either White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus viginianus) or Black Bear attracted by the seep and pond, which afford unusual foraging and bathing opportunities in this otherwise dry terrain. A serious omission on our part was our failure to inspect the area for hair.
Bryophyte sample 8 was now taken from the bark of White Oak with the following result:
Anomodon attenuatus, Frullania brittoniae (Li), Frullania inflata (Li), Hypnum pallescens, Platygyrium repens.
Immediately following this sample 9 was collected from a large down bole, from which the following were recorded:
Anomodon attenuatus, Dicranum viride, Frullania brittoniae, Hypnum pallescens, Platygyrium repens
Vascular species found in the vicinity were Four-leaved yam, Mountain Bellwort, Crinkled Hairgrass and Maple-leaf Viburnum (Viburnum acerifolium).
A feature of his forest referred to earlier was its thin canopy and the greater amount of light available when compared to the younger and more Hemlock-rich forest on the Road's west side. This greater amount of light may also have been responsible for the relative abundance of Chestnut Oak seedlings now observed here.
Bryophyte sample number 10 was now collected from a number of Northern Red and Chestnut Oaks, and these yielded the following diverse assemblage:
Amblystegium serpens, Anomodon attenuatus, Anomodon rostratus, Brachythecium rutabulum, Clasmatodon parvulus, Dicranella Sp (sterile), Dicranum montanum, Dicranum viride, Fissidens adianthoides, Frullania asagrayana (Li), Frullania eboracensis (Li), Haplohymenium triste, Hypnum pallescens, Leucodon julaceus, Orthotrichum pumilum, Platygyrium repens, Thuidium delicatulum.
Conspicuous here was dominance of the soil by numerous large clasts of what appeared to be a dense quartzite. However, sprouting of vegetation from this soil appeared little hindered, perhaps because of the ample supply of moisture.
Bryophyte sample 11 was, like the previous sample, taken from the bark of a number of oaks. It included the following:
Anomodon attenuatus, Campylium chrysophyllum, Entodon compressus, Frullania eboracensis (Li), Frullania riparia (Li), Haplohymenium triste, Hypnum pallescens, Mnium cuspidatum, Platygyrium repens, Pottiacaea (sterile), Pylaisiella selwynii, Tortella humilis.
Sample number 12, from soil in the vicinity of sample 11, contained only:
Brachythecium oxycladon, Dicranum viride, Tortella humilis, Mnium cuspidatum.
We now returned to the Road and began to make our way back to our vehicle. However the following bryophyte sample, (number 13), was collected from soil along the Road bank:
Dicranella heteromalla, Dicranum scoparium, Hypnum curvifolium, Hypnum pallescens, Leucobryum glaucum, Polytrichum ohioense, Rhynchostegium serrulatum
Additional fungi collected on the traverse and later identified by R. Hunsucker were as follows:
Austroboletus gracilis – under oak, pine, Hemlock
Boletus pallidus – edible, under oak on sandy soil
Collybia confluens - on fallen leaves and needles
Cortinarius armillatus – under Black Birch
Cortinarius corrugatus – in moist deciduous woods
Phaeolis schweinitzii – (Dye Polypore), under Table Mountain Pine; a parasite on conifers
Suillus intermedius – edible, under pineFinally, it must be stressed once more that the Bald Mountain Road must be closed and obliterated to salvage what remains of the biodiversity of Shenandoah Mountain and to create the Ernie Dickerman Wilderness. Virginians for Wilderness have called for this closure for two decades now, as they have for an end to the destructive and out-dated policies of the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries that are represented by this road.
Sugar Grove Vicinity
Source Walks: 8-20-01 and 8-21-01
The following describes a camping interlude and inventory by the reporter at the base of Shenandoah Mountain, a little east of Sugar Grove, West Virginia. The site inventoried is adjacent to State Route 25 at the western edge of the US Naval Reservation and near an intermittent stream. Elevation here is near 2000 feet (610 m) asl and the general aspect is north northwest. The weather was mild, practically windless and pleasant.
An unusual experience here – sadly now increasingly rare – was hearing the sound of a Whip- Poor – Will (Caprimulgus vociferus). The cries of this bird were first heard very faintly, as from a great distance, before falling asleep late during the night of 8-20-01. However, early during the following morning, after hearing Screech Owls ( Otus asio ) all night, a Whip – Poor – Will was clearly heard nearby, but only briefly.
My camp was located at the base of the steep mountain slope, with a forest canopy of young White Pine and Sugar and Red Maples. Species under this canopy included scattered Autumn Olive (Elaeagnus umbellata ), Upland Low Blueberry, Intermediate Shield fern, Partridge Berry and Common Speedwell (Veronica officinallis ). The adjacent flood plain contained Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), Shagbark Hickory (Carya ovata ), Black Locust, Sugar Maple, Black Elderberry (Sambucus canadensis), as well as other woody plants and a variety of mesic herbs such as Wingstem (Verbesina alternifolia ). Farther up-slope, under White Pine, Partridge Berry, Potentilla canadensis, a fruticose Cladina lichen of the "reindeer moss' type and large patches of the beautiful moss Pleurozium schreberi partially covered otherwise bare ground.
Of interest also, was a large outcrop of non-calcareous, apparently quite acidic shale. In the open, above this shale, soil bore abundant Trailing Arbutus as well as the other acidiphiles previously mentioned.
At 8:30 AM a soil temperature determination (T-212) was made at the usual depth of 5 inches under White Pine and Sugar Maple. The result was T= 16.5 deg C., a quite low value for the elevation, and probably attributable to the northerly aspect and subsiding cool mountain air.
Other than the night birds mentioned previously, White-breasted Nuthatch ( Sitta carolinensis), Wid Turkey (Meleogris gallopavo) and loudly-drumming but unidentified woodpeckers enlivened the morning.
Reddish Knob, Base to Summit
Source Walks: 8-20-01 and 8-21-01
Our inventories here began at about 10:30 AM on 8-20-01 under very cool and partly cloudy conditions. The only birds noted were ravens sailing over the treetops. A soil temperature determination (T-209) was made near the junction of FR85 and the road to the top of Reddish Knob. The elevation was near 4250 feet ( 1296 m) and the aspect flat. A temperature at the usual depth of 5 inches was 16.0 deg C.
Our inventory of this area was resumed at 10 :00 AM on 8-21-01, again under cool but comfortable conditions. The area covered by an essentially spot inventory was perhaps an acre (0.4 ha). The canopy here also consisted of stunted and contorted Northern Red Oak of uncertain age but mature appearance. Other very subordinate canopy species were Black Cherry (also of a deformed character and including seedlings), Black Birch and Red Maple. The most common understory tree was Striped Maple, but a little Mountain Ash, mostly as seedlings, Downy Serviceberry and Mountain holly were also seen. While shrubs were not abundant, there was some Witch Hazel, Mountain Fetterbush and Red Raspberry with ripe fruit. Seedlings of an unidentified hawthorn were also present.
The only woody vine was Hispid Greenbrier and the most common herb beautifully blooming Mountain Aster. Other herbs were yellow Clintonia, very abundant Hay-scented Fern, Crinkled Hairgrass, Fly Poison, Four-leaved Yam, Curtis Goldenrod, Mountain Bindweed, Indian Turnip, an unusual four-leaved Painted Trillium with red fruit, Carex gracilescens, the grass Calamagrostis porteri, Canada Mayflower, Rock Fern, Indian Pipe (Monotropa uniflora ), a patch of New york Fern ( Thelypteris noveboracensis ), Bunch flower, Whorled Loosestrife, Sweet-scented Bedstraw, Stary Campion ( Silene stellata) and Filmy Angelica. Also seen were the fungi Amanita vaginata, Boletus affinis, Scleroderma citrinum and Collybia confluens. Fire scars were noted at the bases of several oaks.
Bryophyte sample 14, from the bark of Northern Red Oak, bore the following species:
Anomodon attenuatus, Brachythecium rutabulum, Brotherella tenuirostris, Dicranum viride, Entodon brevisetus (uncommon) ,
Frullania asagrayana (Li), Hypnum pallescens, Mnium cuspidatum, Platygyrium repens, Thuidium delicatulum, Ulota crispa.
Also obtained here was bryophyte sample 15, from sandstone:
Dicranella heteromalla, Dicranum fulvum, Hedwigia ciliata, Hypnum pallescens, Orthotrichum pumilum, Platygyrium repens, Thuidium delicatulum.
We now began our ascent of Reddish knob via the road along its east side. Our inventory was in part a repeat of a less extensive one of 9-6-95. As reported at that time, the vegetation, especially along the lower and middle part of the climb, is quite mesic in character. Noted in succession during our ascent were Pennsylvania Blackberry ( Rubus pensilvanicus ) (which may have been misidentified as R. canadensis by this reporter on 9-6-95), Basil Balm, Columbine in bloom at the road edge, and possibly influenced by limestone gravel, Yellow Birch, Horse Balm, Black Cohosh, Virginia Waterleaf, Pale Jewelweed (Impatiens pallida) with bumblebees in attendance, abundant Thin-leaved Sunflower, Nodding fescue, an unidentified hawthorn with half-ripe fruit covered by fungus, Wide-leaved Joe-pye Weed in slightly faded bloom, an unidentified two-meter- tall meadowrue (Thalictrum sp), abundant, vigorous Filmy Angelica, a Red Admiral (Vanessa atalanta) Butterfly, Honewort (Cryptotaenia canadensis ), abundant White Snakeroot in full bloom and vigorous, tall Wood Nettle (Laportea canadensis). As many of these mesic species occurred on the steep slope above the road, it seems unlikely that they were influenced by it.
As we rounded the road's curve to the west, we encountered a steep, open slope with a more southerly exposure. Vegetation here underwent a change to a less mesic type, which may have been in part the result of misguided human intervention in the form of clipping most of it short. Amidst numerous sprouts of Northern Red Oak were Beaked Hazelnut, Upland Low Blueberry, Poison Ivy and Virginia Creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia ) with brilliantly red leaves in an early display, perhaps as a consequence of the high elevation. Herbs were represented by Southern Bellflower, Stiff Aster and Blue Wood aster. Farther along, on a more southerly exposure, there was Common Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca ), its leaves almost consumed by larvae of the Monarch Butterfly ( Donous plexippus ). Here also was Mountain Laurel, Upland Willow (Salix humilis ), the alien Morrow's Honeysuckle (Lonicera morrowii ), an unidentified gooseberry (Ribes sp) and heavy growths of Wild Liveforever and Silverrod, both in spectacular bloom. Other species included Rough Heuchera, (Heuchera hispida ), also in bloom, Little Bluestem (Andropogon scoparium), Virgin's Bower ( Clematis virginiana) and White Heath Aster (Aster pilosus var demotus).
On the north slope, immediately beneath the summit, we saw Hairgrass (Agrostis hyemalis) and Calamagrostis porteri, both in fruit, and the latter making a good display of its characteristics against the sky (photo). Accompanying these were Stary Campion. And a butterfly that was either a Painted Lady ( Vaessa cardui) or an American Painted Lady (V. virginiensis ).
A spot inventory was now conducted in the interior of the forest of dwarf Northern Red Oak immediately below the summit on the west side. As previously noted, Northern Red oak here is about 20 feet (6 m) in height. Other woody species were Striped Maple, Smooth Seviceberry ( Amelanchier laevis), Choke Cherry, Witch Hazel, Mountain Laurel, Mountain Fetterbush, Mountain Holly and Red Elderberry (Sambucus pubens), a species of dryer habitats than Black Elderberry and not, as the latter, adapted to warm as well as cold climates. Hispid Greenbrier was the only woody vine seen but herbs included Crinkled Hairgrass, Mountain Bindweed, blooming Mountain Aster, White Snakeroot, Wild Sarsaparilla, Whorled Loosestrife, Hay-scented Fern, Autumn Bent Grass and the sedge Carex pensylvanica. Boletus affinis was the only fungus identified with confidence.
A soil temperature determination (T-213) here on a steep slope with a west aspect yielded T= 15.5 deg C.
A rapid survey was also executed by R. Hunsucker of the fringe of human-induced vegetation around the summit parking lot. In the following list of this vegetation introduced species are distinguished by an asterisk.
*Plantago major (Great Plantain)
*Verbascum thapsus (Great Mullein)
*Bromus tectarum (Downy Chess)
*Taraxacum officinale (Common Dandelion)
Oxalis stricta (Upright Yellow Wood Sorrel)
*Cirsium vulgare (Common Thistle)
*Centaurea maculosa (Spotted Knapweed)
*Rumex obtusifolius (Broadleaf Dock)
*Tragopogon dubius (Salsify)
Muhlenbergia frondosa ( Wirestem Muhly)
*Polygonum cespitosum ( Asiatic Water Pepper)
Apocynum androsaemifolium ( Spreading Dogbane)
*Arctium minus (Common Burdock)
*Cynoglossum officinale ( Hound's- Tongue)
*Phleum pratense (Timothy)
*Nepeta cataria (Catnip)
Achillea millefolium ( Yarrow) – native and non-native
Prunus virginiana (Chokeberry)
Aster pilosus (White Heath Aster)
*Melilotus alba (White Sweet Clover)
Aster cordifolius (Blue Wood Aster)
Erigeron annuus (Daisy Fleabane)
*Trifolium repens (White Clover)
*Polygonum aviculare (Knotweed)
Asclepias syriaca (Common Milkweed)
Calystegium sepium (Hedge Bindweed) – native and non-native
*Coronilla varia (Crown Vetch )
*Dactylis glomerata (Orchard Grass)
*Festuca elatior (Meadow Fescue)
*Chenopodium album (Lamb's Quarters)
*Medicago lupulina (Black Medic)
Oenothera biennis (Common Evening- Primrose)Junction of FR 85 and State Route 924 At Briery Branch Gap
Source Walk: 8-21-01
On our arrival at the junction we were treated to a sighting of Cedar Waxwings (Bombycilla cedrorum) in the open. We then noted again that the surrounding forest was largely young, with an uneven-age canopy, but with some mature trees. Selected for our inventory was a forest interior site immediately south of the road junction, at an elevation of about 3800 feet (1160 m) and with a north aspect, The canopy here consisted of somewhat Adelgid-infested Hemlock, Red Maple, Black Birch, Northern Red and White Oaks and White Pine. Some Black Oak was noted as well. Hemlock, White Pine and the oaks were generally the largest trees, attaining dbh values of 20 inches (0.5 m) or more. Striped Maple and a little Downy Serviceberry constituted an understory and Mountain Holly, Witch Hazel, Mountain Laurel and Mountain Fetterbush a shrub layer. Although the ground flora was sparse as a consequence of the shade, herbs included Shining Clubmoss ( Lycopodium lucidulum), Mountain Bellwort, Canada Mayflower, Ground Pine, Medeola, Wild sarsaparilla, Carrion flower, Indian Pipe, Fly Poison and Partridge Berry. Fungi included an unidentified Russula, Amanita flavoconia and Leotia lubrica.
Although somewhat late in the day, at 2:00 AM, for our comparative study, a soil temperature determination (T-214) was made in the forest interior, on the north-facing slope and at the usual depth of 5 inches. The result, T = 15.5 deg C. was identical to that we had obtained earlier on a west aspect near the Reddish Knob summit.
Bryophyte Frequencies in the 15 Habitats of Reddish Knob and Vicinity
12 Hypnum pallescens
9 Platygyrium repens
6 Anomodon attenuatus
6 Dicranella heteromalla
6 Dicranum viride
5 Frullania asagrayana (Li)
5 Thuidium delicatulum
4 Leucobryum glaucum
4 Mnium cuspidatum
3 Brachythecium oxycladon
3 Brachythecium rutabulum
3 Frullania brittoniae (Li)
3 Hypnum curvifolium
2 Campylium chrysophyllum
2 Chiloscyphus profundus (Li)
2 Dicranella sp (sterile)
2 Frullania eboracensis (Li)
2 Hedwigia ciliata
2 Polytrichum ohioense
2 Tortella humilis
2 Ulota crispa
1 Amblystegium serpens
1 Brotherella tenuirostris
1 Bryhnia graminicolor
1 Chiloscyphus cuspidatus (Li)
1 Clasmatodon parvulus
1 Dicranum fulvum
1 Dicranum montanum
1 Dicranum scoparium
1 Entodon brevistus
1 Entodon compressus
1 Fissidens adianthoides
1 Frullania inflata (Li)
1 Frullania riparia (Li)
1 Haplohymenium triste
1 Hypnum imponens
1 Leucodon julaceus
1 Orthotrichum pumilum
1 Polytrichum commune
1 Pottiacaea (unidentified)
1 Pylaisiella selwynii
1 Rhodobryum roseum
1 Rhynchostegium serrulatum
1 Scapania nemorosa (Li)
1 Sematophyllum adnatum
1 Ulota crispa
8-20-01: Ground flora, base of Reddish Knob. Click to enlarge.
8-20-01: Ground flora, base of Reddish knob. Click to enlarge.
6-14-00: Base of Reddish Knob, Deschampsia flexuosa.
6-13-00: Southwest of Reddish Knob. Eroding mudstone - evidence of US Forest Service abuse.
6-14-00: Northern Red Oak forest at 4200 feet elevation, base of Reddish Knob. Click to enlarge.
8-21-01: View southwest from Reddish Knob. Line pattern may relate to geologic beds. Click to enlarge.
8-20-01: Old growth Northern Red Oak southwest of Reddish Knob. Note storm-severed limbs.
8-26-01: Reddish Knob summit. Larvae of Monarch on Common Milkweed.
9-6-95: Reddish Knob summit, Thick-leaf Northern Red Oak.
8-21-01: Reddish Knob summit, Calamagrostis porteri.
Discussion
While unique in many of their features, the high elevation forests of Shenandoah Mountain have much in common with other Central Appalachian oak forests. Where they differ greatly is in their canopy composition and low species diversity. The general characteristics of the woody components of these forests have been discussed at some length by Stephenson and Adams (1989, 1991). Although recognized earlier by Ayres and Ashe (1905), Braun (1950) and others, these authors have emphasized the virtual monopoly among oaks of Northern Red Oak at elevations above 4000 feet (1220 m) asl. This feature is compatible with the geographic range of this species, which extends farther north than that of any other oak in eastern North America.
It was inevitable that most of these forests be developed on highly siliceous bedrock, since this rock is most resistant to erosion and thus underlies the highest ridges. As a consequence, and as shown by Stephenson and Adams (1989), most of these forests occur on highly acidic soils, although there is considerable variation in pH values. As may be seen in our report, this variation is reflected predominantly in the shrub and herb communities, while the canopy shows comparatively little. The highest soil pH values found by us fall in the range of 5, and occur where there are quite diverse communities of herbs.
A problem with these forests, inherited from the past, is the extent to which their present character, particularly with respect to canopy species, is related to the loss of the American Chestnut as a result of infection by the fungal parasite Endothia parasitica during the first half of the 20th century. Although Chestnut sprouts and dead remains are frequently tallied in our inventories of the high elevation oak forests, the extent to which this tree once populated the canopy is difficult to determine now. Stephenson et al (1991, 1993) provided an excellent overview, particularly with regard to the possibility of the return of this noble tree to our forests. It appears that the most promising mechanism to accomplish this may be through the spread and establishment of a hypovirulent (greatly weakened) strain of E. parasitica, which would replace the currently prevalent more virulent strain.
In addition to geologic substrate other important factors in the distribution of forest types in the Central Appalachians are temperature, precipitation and cloud cover. While these factors are interrelated, independent data exist for each. A feature of the Appalachians is the northeast – southwest orientation of isotherms over much of the region (U. S. Dept. of Commerce, 1966). Consequently the greatest drop in temperature may occur in going from east to west or vice versa rather than from south to north. Because the lowest temperatures in the Central Appalachians occur in West Virginia's Alleghenies, temperatures at any given elevation there are likely to be lower than those at the same elevation on Shenandoah Mountain. In general this is reflected in the relative numbers of northern and high montane species found in the two regions.. To a degree also, Shenandoah Mountain lies in the rain shadow of the high Alleghenies, although the elevation of the former probably enables it to intercept more precipitation than the lower ranges in the vicinity. It also lies considerably east of the Central Appalachian cloudy-day maximum (Reifsnyder and Lull, 1965), which also falls in the region of the high Alleghenies. As suggested earlier (Mueller, 1994), this factor may contribute to the more mesic character of the Allegheny forests in comparison to those of the Valley and Ridge, including Shenandoah Mountain.
Another feature here is the variation of species characteristics with change of habitat. As previously observed on the Reddish Knob summit, Northern Red Oak leaves are thick and leathery there, and quite unlike the characteristically thin leaves of this species at lower elevations. It is likely that this is an adaptation to the severe conditions of bright sunlight, strong winds and rapid temperature changes which are to be expected in the dwarf, highly exposed trees of the summit. Also, as noted earlier, these high elevation forests include few woody vines. In the example of Shenandoah Mountain, these are virtually confined to Common and Hispid Greenbriers and, in the sunny exposure near the summit of Reddish Knob, to Poison Ivy and Virginia Creeper, but with the latter exhibiting premature loss of chlorophyll, as indicated by its brilliant leaf color. It should be mentioned that in the high Alleghenies there are even fewer woody vines than here, perhaps as a consequence of lower temperatures. A related problem is the occurrence here of Hispid Greenbrier in very acidic soils, whereas at lower elevations Saw Brier (Smilax glauca ) fills this role, and Hispid Greenbrier is virtually confined to soils with moderate to high pH values. It is possible that this reversal of habitat character signals an effect of temperature on the stability of these species. Perhaps significant is evidence that Hispid Greenbrier may extend a bit farther north than Saw Brier (Gleason, 1952).
Of particular interest are the bryophytes of the Reddish Knob vicinity forests and their comparison with those of other Central Appalachian forests. If we examine the tables of bryophyte frequencies in this forest as well as those for Cathedral State Park, Tea Creek and two forests of the North River Valley, we find that in each case the moss Anomodon attenuatus occurs among the six most frequent species, although in many other respects the species present and their frequencies differ considerably and reflect essential differences in forest type. However, although still quite different, the Reddish Knob vicinity forest and those of the nearby North River Valley have a relatively greater affinity to each other, as is shown by the presence of the additional moss Platygyrium repens among the six most frequent species in all three forests. The most frequent bryophyte species in the Reddish Knob vicinity forest is the moss Hypnum pallescens, a species with only low frequency in the Hemlock - rich forest at Cathedral, but with moderate frequencies in the forests at Tea Creek and North River. In general there appears to be a quite good correspondence between forest type and bryophyte species' habitat requirements and ecological characteristics as documented, for example, by Crum and Anderson (1981).
The soil temperature determinations which are incorporated into our inventories here are part of a recently initiated assessment by us throughout the Central Appalachians. While these data now form an integral part of our inventories, they are also in the process of being brought together to gain a thermal picture of the entire region and for evaluation of their potential use in baseline studies of climatic and other changes in these forests. Our first project in this effort is our study "Soil Temperatures and Forest Type", which was recently installed on this web page and which compares soil temperatures from several different forest types and from various locations throughout the region.
References
Ayres, H. B. and W. W. Ashe (1905) The southern Appalachian forests. USDA Geological Survey Professional Paper No. 37. Washington, D> C., 291 pp.
Braun, E. Lucy (1950) Deciduous Forests of Eastern North America. Macmillan Publishing Co., New York.
Crum, Howard A. and Lewis E. Anderson (1981) Mosses of Eastern North America. in two volumes. Columbia University Press, New York.
Gleason, Henry A. (1952) The New Britton and Brown Illustrated Flora of the Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada, Vol. I. Hafner Press, Macmillan Publishing Co., new York.
Hicks M. (1992) Liverworts of North Carolina. Duke University Press, Durham, North Carolina.
Mueller, R. F. (1991) Central Appalachian Wilderness in Perspective, The George Washington National Forest, Wild Earth, 1 (3), 62 – 67
Mueller, R. F. (1994) Central Appalachian Forests, A guide for Activists. Wild Earth 4, (3), 37-49..
Mueller, Bob (1999) A Wilderness for Ernie, Wild Earth, 9, (1), 84.
Phillips, Roger (1991) Mushrooms of North America. Little Brown & Co., Boston.
Rader, E. K., and N. H. Evans, editors (1993) Geologic Map of Virginia – expanded explanation, Virginia Div. of Mineral Resources, Charlottesville, Virginia.
Reifsnyder, William E. and Howard W. Lull (1965) Radiant energy in Relation to Forests. Technical Bulletin 1344, U. S. dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, D C.
Smith, Lawrence R, editor (1991) Biological Diversity Protection 0n the George Washington National Forest, Natural Heritage Technical Report 91 – 1, Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, Richmond, Va., 45 pp plus appendices.
Stephenson, Steven L. and Harold S. Adams (1989) The High - Elevation Red Oak ( Quercus rubra ) Community Type in Western Virginia. Castanea 54, (4), 217-229.
Stephenson, Steven L. and Harold S. Adams (1991) Upland Oak Forests of the Ridge and Valley Province in Southwestern Virginia. Virginia Journal of Science 42, (4), 371 – 380.
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