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Southwest of Petersburg, West Virginia,
the South Branch of the Potomac River slices Cave Mountain from the North Fork Range
in a limestone karst area known as the Smoke Hole Country (Sites, undated). Legend
has it that the cave opening for which the area is named was once used by
Native Americans to smoke meat. What is clear is that this area harbors a
unique combination of geologic features and biological communities and that it
is in urgent need of protection and restoration of its natural integrity. The terrain
of Smoke Hole has a western appearance and connection. Its mountains have an
angularity and steepness reminiscent of the Rockies, if not their scale, and its dry golden grasses with
scattered junipers and oaks are a little like California. More
significantly, it is home to species and biological communities that are disjunct
from similar communities as distant as the mid and far west, as well as some
unique to the Appalachians. Included are shale and limestone barrens, cedar
glades, glade woodlands, xeric oak forests, mesic forests, rich riparian zones
and abundant caves. Most of these communities result from the dry alkaline
conditions inherent in limestone karst and the position of the area in the rain
shadow of the high Alleghenies. The Nature
Conservancy (1991), Bartgis (1993) and the West Virginia Natural Heritage
Program have documented rare species of Smoke Hole, among them rare disjuncts.
The cedar glade and limestone barrens include Prairie Flax (Linum lewisii) first discovered during the Lewis and Clark expedition and found east of
the Mississippi only on the shores of Hudson Bay and here. Additional
western disjuncts are Prairie Rocket (Erysimum asperum), Coopers Milkvetch
(Astragalis neglectus), Death Camas (Zigadenus elegans)
and the Chestnut Lipfern (Cheilanthes castanea). Also, some plants
such as the sedge Carex eburnia, Arborvitæ (Thuja occidentalis
) and Snowberry (Symphoricarpos alba) are northerners at or
near their southern range limits. Others — Shale Barren Goldenrod (Solidago
harrisii ), Yellow Nailwort (Paronychia virginica), Smoke
Hole Bergamot (Monarda fistulosa brevis) — dominate cedar
glades here but are not found in the West. And still others such as the
orchid, Crested Coralroot (Hexalectris spicata), are southerners
at their northern limit at Smoke Hole. More common
species, also documented by these sources, are Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana) Poverty Oat Grass (Danthonia spicata), Thimbleweed (Anemone virginiana), Wild Licorice (Galium circaezans) Nodding Onion (Allium cernuum), Squawweed (Senecio obovatus), Woodland Sunflower (Helianthus divaricatus), Whorled Milkweed (Asclepias verticillata), Ebony Spleenwort (Asplenium
platyneuron ), New Jersey Tea (Ceanothus americanus), Hairy Beardtongue (Penstemon hirsutus) and Thoroughwort Bricklebush (Brickellia eupatorioides). Fauna associated with these plant communities include rare butterflies such as the
Columbine Duskywing (Erynnis lucilius ) and the Cobweb Skipper (Hesperia metea). Caves in the area harbor the Endangered Indiana and Virginia
Big-eared Bats (Myotis sodalis and Corynorhinus townsendii virginianus) and the endemic South Branch Cave Millipede (Pseudotremia princeps).
The South Branch of the Potomac, enriched by the carbonate rocks in its
watershed, constitutes a diverse aquatic ecosystem with abundant fish, bird
life, including Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) and a mollusk fauna with
rare mussels such as the Brook Floater (Alasmidonta varicose). Source Walk: 9-7-94 Just north of
Landes,
West Virginia a rough gravel road ascends Cave Mountain to
its crest. From there a trail descends the northwest slope to the rim of the
South Branch gorge. The road and trail pass over steep, rocky terrain that has
been much degraded by unwise agricultural and forestry practices, particularly
overgrazing. An effort was made here to find and identify not only the rarer
species referred to earlier but also to gain a broad if hasty picture of the
more common members of these communities. The first
cedar glade/limestone barren-type community was encountered about two road
miles (3.2 km) from the main highway (US 220). Trees here are Chinquapin Oak (Quercus muehlenbergii) and Red Cedar, with Fragrant Sumac (Rhus
aromatica) as the only shrub noted. Herbs were Wild Senna (Cassia hebecarpa), Tinkers-weed (Triosteum perfoliatum), Elm-leaf Goldenrod (Solidago
ulmifolia ), False Gromwell (Onosmodium hispidissimum),
Shale-barren Pussytoes ( Antennaria virginica) and Carex eburnia.
Squaw-weed (Senecio obovatus) and Rock Twist (Draba ramasissima) occur in the adjacent oak forest which was not further characterized. After perhaps
a mile (1.6 km) hike to near the gorge rim a more extensive, diverse and less degraded
community was encountered. Although Red Cedar is an important component of
this community, it would be classified as a limestone barren, according to the
Nature Conservancy criteria, because it is dominated by grasses which are
essentially of the western prairie. The most abundant of the grasses is Yellow
Indian Grass (Sorghastrum nutans), with Big Bluestem (Andropogon
gerardi), Little Bluestem (A. scoparius) and Side-oats Grama (Bouteloua curtipendula) forming isolated patches or scattered
throughout. This barren
is on northwest-sloping terrain at an elevation of a little over 1700 ft. (520
meters) with an impressive view to the north of distant cliffs on the gorge
wall and of the Bulls Head, a local prominence of 2757 ft (840 meter)
elevation. At this season the golden-hued, tall grasses against the dark
cedars and the mountain backdrop is particularly striking. In addition
to the Red Cedar, Chinquapin Oak, Black Walnut (Juglans nigra), Black
Locust ( Robinia pseudoacacia), White Ash (Fraxinus americana), Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) and White, Pitch and Virginia
Pines (Pinus strobus, P. rigida and P. virginiana)
form a scattered canopy. Small trees are represented by Hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana) and Redbud (Cercis canadensis) . Associated
with these trees and prairie grasses are other plants with western ranges as
well as some restricted to eastern forests. In the first group are Orange Puccoon
(Lithospermum canescens), Indian Hemp (Apocynum cannabinum), Grooved Flax (Linum sulcatum), Thimble Weed (Anemone
virginiana) and the shrub Coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus). In the second group are many small plants hidden among the grasses.
These include Hairy Panic Grass (Panicum villosissimum), Squaw-weed,
Moss Pink (Phlox subulata), Virginia Snakeroot (Aristolochia
serpentaria), Nodding Onion (Alium cernuum), Hog Peanut (Amphicarpa
bracteata), Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis),
Wavy-leaf and Heath Asters (Aster undulates and A. pilosus
) , Common Speedwell (Veronica officinalis), Shrubby St.
John’s-wort (Hypericum prolificum), Downy Woodmint (Blephila
ciliata), Arrow-leaf Violet (Viola sagittata), the Bush
Clover Lespedeza nuttallii, the mushroom Hygrophorus coccineus, an
unidentified species of Violet (Viola sp), Pale Indian Plantain ( Cacalia
atriplicifolia), Bedstraw (Galium sp) and mosses. The alien
species Ox-eye Daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum), Yellow
Sweet Clover (Melilotus officinalis), Black Medic Clover (Medicago
lupulina ) and Canada Bluegrass (Poa compressa) were
also identified. The
predominantly deciduous forest that borders this limestone barren, at least on
the south, consists largely of Pignut (Carya obovatus or C. glabra) and Shagbark (Carya ovata) Hickories and Chinquapin Oak, with
Hop-hornbeam in the understory. Under these trees an outcrop of thin-bedded
limestone (probably Tonoloway) had a few plants of Cliff Brake Fern (Pellæa atropurpurea) growing on it. A small excavation was made to determine
the soil type in the barren. The soil proved to be very dark brown (slightly
moist) with substantial clay and organic matter content to a depth of at least
a foot (0.3 meters). This may border on a prairie soil type. Save a few
Goldfinches (Carduelis tristis ), virtually the only fauna noted in
the barren were Chiggers (Eutrombicula alfreddugesi), and these
were not apparent until the area was vacated. As is generally the case
however, no significant effort was made to record fauna, since such close
concentration was required to identify the flora. It should be
stressed that while many species in these limestone barrens and cedar glades
may be shared with western habitats such as prairies and that even communities
bear a resemblance to those of the West, many eastern inserts render these
communities quite distinct from their western counterparts. An additional
point of interest is the interaction of a carbonate substrate with dry growing
conditions as compared with the interaction of a siliceous substrate with those
conditions. Among the common elements in the floras of the two environments
are certain tree species such as Pignut and the Pines and some herbaceous plants.
Otherwise the communities are quite different. The shale barrens are extremely dry,
poorly vegetated, open canopy communities of shale slopes and tend to be acidic
rather than alkaline. They tend to occur on shales of Devonian age, but are
also found on Ordovician and Silurian shales. A large,
well-developed shale barren occupies a steep south-facing slope on red Silurian
shales, which likely are Rose Hill Formation. This occurrence on the Monongahela National Forest,
is dominated by Virginia Pine and Pennsylvania Sedge (Carex pensylvanica). Although there few endemics at this site, there are Shale Barren Pussytoes (Antennaria virginica), Mountain Nailwort (Paronychia montana) and Pussytoes Ragwort (Senecio antennarifolius),with the latter the
least common. Devonian shales
of the Mahatango Formation occur near deep Hollow Run. Endemics here are Pussytoes
Ragwort, Kates Mountain Clover, (Trifolium virginicum), Shale Barren
Evening Primrose (Oenothera argillicola) and Bent Milkvetch (Astragalus
distortus).
The flora
of the dolomite and limestone barrens of Southwestern
Virginia (Ludwig, 1999) bears some
resemblance to that of the limestone barrens and cedar glades of the Smoke Hole
Country. Highly characteristic species held in common include the sedge Carex
eburnea, Crested Coralroot, Big Bluestem, Little Bluestem, Side-oats Grama,
Yellow Indian Grass, Fragrant Sumac, Virginia Snakeroot, Elm-leaf Goldenrod,
Orange Puccoon, Chinquapin Oak and Grooved Flax. However, several
characteristic species such as the Smoke Hole Bergamot and False Gromwell
apparently do not occur in the Virginia barrens. Also, the latter contain a number of
species, such as the orchid Spiranthes magnicamporum and the shrub Rhamnus
laceolata subspecies glabrata, which are largely Midwestern in
distribution, but apparently are not found at Smoke Hole. The xeric
limestone prairies of Pennsylvania (Laughlin and Uhl, 2003) are small both as
individual tracts and in total area (less than one hectare). They also appear
to be depauperate. However they do contain some species, such as Long-fruited
Anemone (Anemone cylindrica ), at the southern limit of their
distribution. Bartgis, R. L. (1993) The Limestone Glades and Barrens of West
Virginia. Castanea 58, 69-89. Laughlin, Daniel C. and Christopher F. Uhl (2003) The
Xeric Limestone Prairies of Pennsylvania. Castanea 68 (4) 300-316. Ludwig, J. Christopher (1999) The Flora of Dolomite and
Limestone Barrens in Southwestern Virginia. Castanea 64 (3) 209-330. Sites, Roy S. (undated) The Smoke Hole Region of West
Virginia. Feature Article, West Virginia Geologic and Economic Survey Web Site. The Nature Conservancy (1991) Characterization and Conservation
of Rare Species and Special Habitats of the Eagle Rock and Smoke Hole Opportunity
Areas in the Monongahela National Forest. West
Virginia Field Office, Charleston, West Virginia.Smoke Hole Country
April, 2006
General Features
Cave Mountain
Northwest of Landes, West Virginia
Shale Barrens
Dr. Hunsucker studies Cedar Glade West of Landes, WV, 9-7-94.
Onosmodium hispidissimum in Cedar Glade about 2 miles West of Landes, WV, 9-7-94.
Big Bluestem in Cedar Glade West of Landes, WV, 9-7-94.
Smoke Hole Country, West of Landes, WV, 9-7-94.
Discussion
References
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