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Soil temperatures are
related to several forest types and different environmental conditions in the
Central Appalachian Mountains. Of three forest types studied in most detail, a
mountain White Pine- Hemlock- Hardwood forest with boreal components, in a valley
flat at Ramsey's Draft in Virginia, had growing season soil temperatures lower
than those of Oak- Hickory Ridge
and Mesic Slope Forests in the
Shenandoah Valley. Some early season temperature differences may be as great as
4 deg C. The Shenandoah Valley forest types exhibit considerable and complex
seasonal variations in response to elevation, aspect and possibly soil
moisture. Although the soil temperatures in all three forest types exhibit
sharp seasonal variations, temperatures of a
Deep-source Spring at Ramsey's Draft define a smooth curve with a
maximum falling about a month later than the soil temperature maxima.
Soil temperatures were
also determined at nine other locations in the mountains of Virginia and West Virginia and compared to
the Ramsey's Draft data. As expected, low elevation, dominantly oak forest soil
temperatures lie above the Ramsey's Draft trend, while those of valley flats with boreal floral components
and those of high elevation forests lie near or below this trend.
The simplicity,
reliability, low cost and, above all, the value of the data obtained from
studies of this type speak for their standard incorporation into forest ecology
field surveys. Additionally, their potential value for baseline studies of such
phenomena as climate change may be significant.
Experience
tells us that temperature is a factor that enters into virtually all activities
of our lives. In the natural world, the focus of interest here, it is a major
element in the rates of chemical reactions, both inorganic and organic, and in
the stability of systems ranging from mineral assemblages to biologic
communities. In these systems it joins moisture and chemical composition as one
of the most important determinants of what we observe.
Here emphasis
is on soil temperatures, and to a lesser extent, on those of the natural waters
that come in contact with soils. We are also interested in air temperatures,
since these too affect species occurrence and stability, although they are not
reported on here.. These several temperatures are closely related, but may be
relatively independent of each other in the short-term. It is also possible
that soil and air temperatures are to a degree additive in their biological
effects, and this relation may explain some responses in floras that are larger
than might be expected from soil temperatures alone.
It is
axiomatic that temperature plays a critical role in the establishment and
stability of a number of forest types, as long recognized in existing forests,
in which some types bear a close relationship to latitude and elevation (Braun,1950), but also in the migration of these types during glacial and
post-glacial times (Delcourt and Delcourt, 1981) .
In the
Central Appalachians many forest types situated on various geologic substrates,
at different elevations and topographic positions, are available for study. In
our soil temperature survey concentration is on three forest types, which are
situated at unlike elevations and topographic positions and on several geologic
substrates. Surveyed less intensively are a number of additional types from
mountain areas throughout the region.
All
temperature measurements were made with a six-inch (15 cm) Reotemp probe (
Ben Meadows), which could be read to + or – 0.5 deg C. This thermometer was
not compared to any other in any systematic way, but when checked was found to
be in good agreement with other types. In every measurement an attempt was made
to insert the probe to a depth of five inches (13 cm) into mineral soil
beneath the leaf or needle mat. Holes for the probe were first punched with a
stick or, in the case of hard or rocky soil, with a metal punch. However, in
some cases much of the five- inch depth was through a thick organic mor layer.
It was found that equilibration time of the thermometer with the soil
frequently exceeded five minutes, so great care was needed to obtain good
readings, particularly in dry soils.
The depth
chosen for these measurements was based on ease of measurement and
significance, since five inches generally lies within the zone of greatest
feeder root development (Perry, 1982), but is still deep enough to avoid most
short-term surface influences.
Virtually
all measurements were made between 9:30 AM and noon, but a few were made in
early afternoon. When tested, no evidence of change was detected throughout
this interval. This result is consistent with the data of Cochran (1969),
which shows only a few degrees difference between daily minimum and maximum
soil temperatures at a depth of 13 cm beneath a mulch layer, a condition that
resembles a leaf mat under a closed canopy, as in the present study. Also, the
data of Davidson et al (1998) indicate that even at the shallow depth
of 5 cm, forest soil temperatures may vary only a a degree over a span of
several hours.
Our first
area of concentration was Ramsey's Draft, Virginia, a small mountain stream
valley, and in the vicinity of the Mountain House recreation site, immediately
to the southwest of the Ramsey's Draft Wilderness of the George Washington
National Forest (see our section on this area) . Seven soil temperature and
four water temperature stations were established on the valley flat (flood
plain) .Elevations ranged between 2200 and 2300 feet (671 and 702 m) asl.
These stations were distributed over a
distance of nearly a mile (1.6 km) from a little southeast of the
Mountain House picnic ground to just within the Wilderness Area to the
northeast. The water temperature stations included one Deep-source Spring, a
temporary seep, a branch stream and Ramsey's Draft itself. All soil temperature
stations but one had flat aspects, This exception was located at the base of
the bordering slope and had a southeast aspect. Of significance here is that
the area occupied by the soil and water temperature stations is, with the
exception of a nearby highway, part of a forest tract of many thousands of
acres. The
flood plain alluvium is comprised dominantly of coarse siliceous material
derived from sandstones, siltstones, shales and mudstones. Soil pH generally falls in the acid range, but there
is considerable variation, and some sites attain circum-neutral values.. The
forest type on the valley flat is White Pine- Hemlock-Hardwood. White Pine (Pinus strobus), Canada Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), Tuliptree (Liriodendron
tulipifera), Northern Red
Oak (Quercus rubra) and
Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis
) are among the largest trees, but Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum) is perhaps the most abundant,
particularly as seedlings. Other common species are Black and Yellow Birches (
Betula lenta and B. alleghaniensis), Shagbark Hickory (Carya ovata), White Ash (Fraxinus americana), American Beech (Fagus grandifolia), Black Gum (Nyssa sylvatica), American and White Basswoods
(Tilia americana an T. heterophylla), RedMaple(
Acer rubrum), White Oak(
Quercus alba), Black Locust (Robinia
pseudoacacia) and Black
Cherry (Prunus serotina) .
Sassafras (Sassafras albidum),
Chestnut Oak (Quercus prinus)
and pignut hickory (Carya glabra
and/or C. ovalis) are less
frequently seen. Part of this forest is old growth primary forest, but old
trees, some three feet (0.9 m) dbh or more, are quite common generally.
Understory
trees noted are Striped Maple (Acer
pensylvanicum), Muscletree (Carpinus caroliniana) and serviceberry (Amelanchier sp) . One seedling of Mountain Ash (
Sorbus americana) was seen. Shrubs
include both mesic species such as Spice Bush (Lindera benzoin) and ericacaea like Mountain
Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) .
These woody plants are accompanied by a wealth of herbs, a number of which,
such as Canada Mayflower (Maianthemum
canadense) and Star Flower (Trientalis borealis) are, like Mountain Ash, boreal
in character, attesting to cold air accumulation on the valley flat. Such
accumulation here is particularly effective, owing to adjacent high mountains
and the valley's configuration, which includes abutment on a steep mountain
slope at a sharp bend . For details the reader is again referred to our section
on the area.
Table 1
lists median values of soil temperatures, soil temperature spreads and single
value water temperatures for the Deep -source Spring and Ramsey's Draft Stream.
Other water temperatures are not included.
Figure 1 shows plots of the median soil temperatures and single value
temperatures for the Deep-source Spring. In this figure the soil temperature
points have been joined by straight lines in recognition that the precise
locations of these points are likely to be significant. We shall see that it is
unlikely that any smooth function could approximate data of this type, since
sharp fluctuations are inherent in them from a variety of factors, including
particularly the weather.
Table 1. Median temperatures and temperature spreads for
seven soil temperature stations and single value water temperatures
representing a Deep-source Spring and the Stream at Ramsey's Draft.
Note however that the Deep-source Spring data may be closely
approximated by a smooth "breaking wave" curve. This form results
from the characteristic that the Deep-source Spring temperatures are probably
less subject to weather factors than those of the soil, and peak almost a month
later. This delayed response is also shown by their higher values than those of
the soil in October, after falling below the latter all summer. While the
October flattening of the temperature trends is more difficult to explain, it
may be a temporary response to leaf-fall and accumulation, which could serve to
insulate the soil.
Stream
water temperatures of Ramsey's Draft are similar to those of the soils, which
may indicate a shallow source for most of this water.
Because the
Ramsey's Draft soil temperatures represent an extensive area of valley flat,
are associated with a quite uniform forest type and show little spread, they
serve as an informative standard for comparison with similar data from other
forest types and areas. They are thus employed in what follows.
Our
second intensively studied area is an Oak-Hickory Ridge Forest (
"Mueller's Mountain") . This Ridge is adjacent to a rare calcareous
wetland in the Central Shenandoah Valley of Virginia and is underlain by
dolomitic limestone with large inclusions of the siliceous rock chert. The
wetland, which is formed by an artesian spring, is located in a trap for cold
subsiding air and, as a consequence, has a number of disjunct boreal plants
that includes Buckbean (Menyanthes
trifoliata) and Pussy Willow (Salix discolor) (Hunsucker and Mueller, 1998
). The cold air in the vicinity of the wetland also influences the time of
leafing-out of trees in the adjacent Oak-Hickory Ridge Forest, so those growing
on the lower Ridge are retarded compared to those on the Ridge crest. Also,
leafing-out on the Ridge as a whole is retarded relative to trees on nearby
higher ridges, including the Mesic Slope Forest, which is part of our soil
temperature study as well (see photos) .
Another
important factor is the topographically exposed character and small size of the
Ridge Forest, since it is elevated relative to its immediate, rather open
surroundings, and occupies only about 30 acres (12 ha) . Thus weather
conditions and thermal influences might be expected to change more rapidly than
in larger forest tracts.
Although
limestone is the dominant bedrock, the summit of the Ridge is formed largely of
chert. Thus soils range from quite acidic to alkaline. Dominant canopy species
on the Ridge, which rises 150 feet (46 m) above the wetland, are Black Oak (Quercus
velutina), White Oak and
several species of hickories. The forest on the southeast slope also has a
mesic component that includes Black Walnut (Juglans nigra), Slippery Elm (Ulmus rubra), White Ash, Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) and a few other species.
The forest is generally young but mature, and has been subject to selective
cutting about 30 years ago. Few trees exceed one foot (0.3 m) dbh. For
details of the flora of the Ridge Forest see our section on Hydrastis canadensis L.
Median soil
temperatures and the spread of these values are listed for the five stations in
Table 2. These stations, which lie between 1590 feet (480 m) and 1700 feet
(519 m) asl, include one on the northwest slope, one on the Ridge crest with an
almost flat but NE aspect, two on the southeast slope and one at the edge of
the wetland. Because the wetland site is open, it yielded the highest
temperatures, while those from the northwest slope were generally the lowest.
The relatively large spreads in the temperatures are in large part attributable
to the inclusion of the temperatures from the wetland edge.
The median
soil temperature values from Table 2 have been plotted on Figure 2, which also
shows the soil temperature trend from Ramsey's Draft for comparison. Although
the Oak-Hickory Ridge data show rather abrupt changes in soil temperatures,
they clearly lie substantially above those of Ramsey's Draft. This difference
is particularly marked during the early growing season when vegetative growth
is most rapid. When all of our data have been presented it will be of interest
to discuss other features of this graph.
Table 2. Median
temperatures and temperature spreads for five soil temperature stations
in the Oak-Hickory Ridge Forest.
Our third
subject of intensive study is the Mesic Slope Forest on the ridge (
"Pileated Peak") across the Folly Mills Valley from the Oak-Hickory
Ridge. Here seven soil temperature stations were distributed along a traverse
line perhaps ½ mile (0.8 km) in length between 1650 and 1880 feet (503 and
573 m) asl. Aspect was northwest at one station, north at four and near flat
at two on the ridge top. The latter stations consistently yielded the highest
temperatures. Although this forest is also underlain by calcareous bedrock,
soils and sub-soils are deeper and rock exposures far fewer than on the Oak-
Hickory Ridge. Soils are dominantly moderately acidic (pH in the vicinity of
5.0 –5.5), but are more strongly acidic on the ridge top. The slope soils are
of the rich mull type and high in organic matter.
The canopy
at all stations but one is young / mature, with tree diameters ranging up to
two feet (0.6 m) or more and of uneven age. The exception occurs at the
lowest elevation in a stand of Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida) saplings. The mature canopy,
which is part of a substantial tract of forest several hundred acres in extent,
is dominated by Northern Red Oak, Tuliptree, Red Maple, Black Walnut, White
Ash, White Oak, Bitternut Hickory (Carya
cordiformis), White and Americam Basswoods and Black Cherry. Minor
Beech and Sugar Maple occur as saplings. Chestnut Oak and Black Gum increase
toward the ridge top, where White Pine also occurs. The most common understory
tree is Hophornbeam (Ostrya
virginiana), there is a little Muscletree, and Spice Bush is an
abundant shrub on part of the ridge top as well as on the slope.
There is a
luxuriant complement of herbs that includes species such as Black Cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa), Pale Jewelweed (Impatiens pallida) and Horsebalm (Collinsonia canadensis), among many others. No
markedly boreal species were seen.
Median
values obtained from the seven soil temperature stations as well as the spread
in values are shown in Table 3, and the former have been plotted in Figure 3,
which also shows the Ramsey's Draft trend.
Table 3. Median
temperatures and temperature spreads for seven soil temperature stations
in the Mesic Slope Forest.
A feature
of this plot is the rapid rise in soil temperatures in the Mesic Slope Forest
during April and early May relative to those in the Oak-Hickory Ridge Forest
during the same period. Since most of the temperature stations in the Mesic
Slope Forest lie at higher elevations, they probably were subject to higher air
temperatures, particularly before leaves emerged, a consequence of which may
have been the precipitous drop in temperature immediately thereafter.. Another
feature of Figure 3 is the relatively modest fluctuation in soil temperatures
after leaf emergence, compared to that of the Oak-Hickory Ridge Forest. This
may be a consequence of the moderating effect of the northerly aspect, the
dominance of soils richer in organic matter, and the more extensive tract of
enclosing forest, relative to that of the Oak-Hickory Ridge.
Table 4 and
Figure 4 exhibit data from nine Central Appalachian locations in Virginia and
West Virginia, although not this many distinct forest types. All data represent
single value measurements. As in the other figures, the Ramsey's Draft soil
temperature trend is shown for comparison. Not all the values in Table 4 have
been plotted in Figure 4.
Maple Flats
is a unique area of nutrient deficient soils, and the soil temperature data
from there all represent upland oak forests. Mill Hill and Morris Hill are
sites with several forest types related to topography and underlying rock
types., while the one value from Blowing Springs represents a flood plain in
this complex area. In contrast
Table 4. Single value soil temperatures from nine locations
in the Central Appalachians.
to these largely low
elevation oak forests of Virginia, the Tea Creek forest occupies a somewhat
higher and cooler valley flat and the adjacent lower slope on West Virginia's
Allegheny Plateau. This forest is decidedly mesic and contains numerous boreal
and montane species including Red Spruce (Picea rubens) . Much the same is true of
Cathedral State Park, also in West Virginia, which, however, is old growth
Hemlock- Hardwood forest on highly acidic substrate.
The Reddish
Knob area, on the Virginia – West Virginia boundary, which is dominated by
Northern Red Oak, reaches the highest
elevations of our study. The single value from near Sugar Grove, West Virginia,
represents forest at the base of the steep scarp of Shenandoah Mountain and is
probably a product of cooling by subsiding air.
Although
the North River Valley forests of Virginia are at similar elevations and have
many of the same floral characteristics as those of Ramsey's Draft, they occupy
a much broader valley that opens to the south without interruption.
Consequently the capacity of this valley to pond cold subsiding air from the
highlands is considerably less than at Ramsey's Draft. The result is a scantier
boreal flora.
For a more
complete picture of these areas the reader is referred to our list of
inventories.
As a whole,
the positions of the temperature data points in relation to the Ramsey's Draft
trend, as shown in Figure 4, are in essential agreement with the elevations and
topographic positions of the forest types represented. Those from the low
elevation, mostly oak forests on the left of the figure generally lie well
above the Ramsey's Draft distribution line, while the high elevation Reddish
Knob and cold valley flat Tea Creek and Cathedral Park data mostly lie well
below. The North River data also fit the pattern, lying close to the line for
the most part, in keeping with the similarity of the forest type represented to
that at Ramsey's Draft.
Soil and water
temperatures are subject to a variety of
environmental influences. Most prevalent are the effects of latitude,
elevation and continentality
Superimposed are those of topography, aspect, forest type and forest
extent and continuity. Important manifestations of forest type are light
intensity and character, and the character of the leaf mat and forest floor.
Products of all these influences are soil type and biologic activity. Feedback
or mutual influence is important in a number of these factors as well. Although
some influences on the soil and water temperature distributions have already
been discussed, others may be deduced from the figures.
The general
rise in soil and water temperatures during the early part of the growing season
is a feature of the first three figures. This is a period of intense biologic
activity, when leaf emergence and vegetative growth are greatest. Minor
set-backs of soil temperatures during this period, as that in Figure 2 are more
difficult to explain, but may be related to more intense shade following full
canopy leaf cover, but at a later date than that in the Mesic Slope Forest as
shown in Figure 3.
The late
season convergence of the temperatures as shown in Figures 1,2 and 3 is also of
interest. The Shenandoah Valley sites are located only 20 miles (32 km) from
Ramsey's Draft. Thus it is likely that the region – wide relatively high
temperatures of late summer overwhelm the largely topographically- induced
microclimates that prevail earlier in the season.
The three major
energy-related processes in forests are photosynthesis, respiration and
evapotranspiration. While photosynthesis is "endoergic", respiration
and evapotranspiration are likely to be exothermic and endothermic
respectively. in overall influences, including those on the soil. Davidson et
al (1998) found that soil respiration decreases markedly during drought
periods. Of interest therefore are the periods of precipitous soil temperature
decline in early July and during August, both exceptionally dry periods, while
the intervening period was one of some shower activity. It may be that these
soil temperature declines were a consequence of interrupted exothermic
respiration of plant roots and soil flora and fauna, while the endothermic
activity associated with evapotranpiration of necessity continued. Although no
supporting data are presented here, preliminary observations hint that there
may also be a correlation between early season soil temperatures and the
character of the soils, with the lowest temperatures associated with acid, mor
types, presumably due to lower biologic activity in them.
It should
also be noted that while the variation in summer soil temperatures is greater
in the Oak-Hickory Ridge Forest data of Figure 2, corresponding features also occur
during the same periods in Figures 1 and 3 for Ramsey's Draft and the Mesic
Slope Forest. Because of the large gap in the Ramsey's Draft data from mid-June
to late July, it is not possible to say what occurred during this period.
However, the apparent leveling-off may well correspond to the decline in the
temperatures of Figure 2. The same may be said of the data from the Mesic Slope
Forest for the same period in Figure 3. As previously indicated, such features
may be related to soil moisture variations. Also consistent with a coordinated
response in the three areas, considering the paucity of data, is the near
coincidence of the yearly soil temperature maxima in all three figures. The
steep decline in soil temperatures in the Oak-Hickory Ridge Forest and the more
modest responses in the other forests may be a consequence in part to the
prominence of southeast aspects and more exposed position of the former.
Although
our effort here is concentrated on soil temperatures, the data from the
Deep-source Spring at Ramsey's Draft is of particular interest. Although these
data are few in number, their disposition is so orderly that informative
conclusions may be drawn from them. Because the first six points all fall on or
close to (within the measurement uncertainty) a smooth, simple curve, it is
tempting to conclude that the waters they represent originated at depths beyond
superficial weather or other soil temperature influences. This conclusion is
supported by the position of the curve's maximum, which occurs about a month
later than the maxima of soil temperatures. Furthermore, the reversal of soil
and water temperatures in October, with the Deep-source Spring water
temperature becoming higher than soil temperature, is consistent with the
foregoing properties.
Our
experience here seems to indicate that soil temperature studies of this type
may have a potential as an additional dimension of forest ecology. Their yield
of information is large, given their simplicity, reliability, low expense and
ease of execution. Beyond their utility in forest ecology, there is also a
potential as indicators of secular changes, particularly in relation to
climate. Data of the type presented here may serve as baselines if short- term
perturbations are not too great and the secular changes can be distinguished
from this background. Primary to such an effort are well-located multi-station
sites that show minimal temperature variation between stations. A forest being
monitored for its soil temperatures should have reached maturity, be secure
from changes in forest type and not be subject to outside influences such as
deforestation of adjacent areas, particularly in the same watershed and
airshed. Considered in these terms and
as illustrations, Ramsey's Draft
and the Mesic Slope Forest should be superior to the Oak-Hickory Ridge Forest
as potential sites for baseline studies.
The author
greatly appreciates the steadfast assistance of
Patagonia Corporation and our fiscal sponsor, Save America's Forests,
who have done so much to further this Project. He is also thankful for the
pleasant companionship in the field and many stimulating and informative
conversations with Robert Hunsucker and Dorothy Simkins.
Also appreciated is the patient assistance with the computer
given by his wife, Elizabeth DeMar Mueller and webmaster son, Gus Mueller.
Braun, E. Lucy (1950) Deciduous Forests of Eastern
North America. Macmillan, New York.
Cochran, P. H. (1969) Thermal properties and surface
temperatures of seedbeds – a guide for foresters. USDA Forest
Service Pacific Northwest Forest Range Expt. Station. Portland, Oregon.
Davidson, Eric A., Elizabeth Belk and Richard D. Boone (
1998) Soil water content and temperature as independent or confounded factors
controlling soil respiration in a temperate mixed hardwood forest. Global
Change Biology 4, 217-228.
Delcourt, Paul A. and Hazel R. Delcourt (1981) Vegetation
Maps for Eastern North America: 40,000 B. P. to the Present.in Geobotany II.
Robert C. Romans, editor. pp 123-165. Plenum Press, New York.
Hunsucker, Robert and R. F. Mueller (1998) Folly Mills
Calcareous Wetland, Augusta County, Virginia.Forests of the Central
Appalachians Project. Virginians for Wilderness web site.
Perry, Thomas O. (1982) The Ecology of Tree Roots and the
Practical Significance Thereof. Journal of Arboriculture. 8 (8),197-211.
Soil Temperature and Forest Type
R. F. Mueller
January 2002
Abstract
Introduction
Ramsey's Draft
Date
Temperatures oC Temperature Spreads oC
4-22-01 soil 10.0 9.0-12.5
4-22-01 spring 8.0
4-22-01 stream 10.0
6-4-01 soil 12.0 12.0-13.0
6-4-01 spring 12.0
6-4-01 stream 13.0
6-22-01 soil 17.0 16.5-17.5
6-22-01 spring 13.5
6-22-01 stream 18.5
7-28-01 soil 17.0 17.0-17.5
7-28-01 spring 15.0
7-28-01 stream 17.5
8-15-01 soil 18.0 17.5-19.0
8-15-01 spring 16.5
8-15-01 stream 17.0
9-11-01 soil 17.5 17.0-18.0
9-11-01 spring 17.0
9-11-01 stream 17.5
10-11-01 soil 12.0 11.5-13.0
10-11-01 spring 13.5
10-11-01 stream 12.5
11-2-01 soil 12.0 11.0-13.0
11-2-01 spring 13.0
11-2-01 stream 12.0 Oak-Hickory Ridge Forest
Date
Temperatures oC Temperature Spreads oC 4-7-01 12.0 9.0-12.0 4-21-01 12.0 10.0-12.0 4-29-01 13.0 11.0-16.0 5-8-01 14.5 12.5-16.5 5-22-01 16.5 14.0-17.5 5-30-01 15.5 14.0-17.5 6-11-01 17.0 16.0-19.0 6-29-01 20.0 19.0-21.0 7-15-01 18.0 17.0-19.5 8-1-01 19.0 18.0-20.0 8-12-01 21.5 21.0-22.5 9-6-01 18.5 18.0-20.5 9-30-01 13.5 13.5-15.5 10-13-01 15.0 14.5-16.0 10-30-01 11.0 10.0-12.0 Mesic Slope Forest
Date
Temperatures oC Temperature Spreads oC 4-8-01 10.0 9.0-10.0 4-24-01 13.5 13.0-14.0 5-5-01 15.0 14.5-16.0 5-23-01 13.5 13.0-14.0 6-8-01 16.0 16.0-17.0 6-27-01 17.5 17.5-19.0 7-14-01 17.5 16.5-18.0 7-25-01 19.5 19.5-20.5 8-8-01 20.0 19.5-21.5 8-26-01 19.0 18.0-21.0 9-18-01 16.0 15.5-18.5 10-4-01 15.0 14.0-16.5 10-23-01 13.5 12.5-15.5 Additional Soil Temperatures from the Mountains
Dates Locations Elevations(Meters) Aspects Soil Temperatures °C 4-27-01 Maple Flats (MF) 488 flat 12.0 4-27-01 Maple Flats (MF) 488 flat 11.0 4-27-01 Maple Flats (MF) 476 flat 12.0 4-27-01 Maple Flats (MF) 470 NE 12.5 4-27-01 Maple Flats (MF) 468 flat 12.5 4-27-01 Maple Flats (MF) 488 flat 13.0 5-14-01 Mill Hill (MH) 512 W 11.0 5-14-01 Mill Hill (MH) 550 flat 13.5 5-14-01 Mill Hill (MH) 560 flat 12.5 5-15-01 Blowing Springs (BS) 525 flat 13.0 6-14-01 Morris Hill (MoH) 730 flat 16.5 6-14-01 Morris Hill (MoH) 550 SE 17.5 6-14-01 Morris Hill (MoH) 540 SE 18.5 7-10-01 Cathedral St. Park (CP) ~770 flat 17.0 7-10-01 Cathedral St. Park (CP) ~770 flat 16.0 7-10-01 Cathedral St. Park (CP) ~770 flat 16.0 7-11-01 Cathedral St. Park (CP) ~770 flat 17.0 7-20-01 Tea Creek (TC) 950 flat 16.0 7-20-01 Tea Creek (TC) 950 flat 17.0 7-20-01 Tea Creek (TC) 950 W 16.0 7-21-01 Tea Creek (TC) ~1000 NE 16.0 8-20-01 Reddish Knob (RK) 1296 NW 16.0 8-20-01 Reddish Knob (RK) 1160 SW 17.0 8-20-01 Reddish Knob (RK) 1160 SE 17.0 8-21-01 Reddish Knob (RK) 1340 W 15.5 8-21-01 Reddish Knob (RK) 1160 N 15.5 8-21-01 Sugar Grove (SG) 610 NW 16.5 8-29-01 North River Valley (NR) 720 flat 19.0 8-29-01 North River Valley (NR) 720 E 18.5 9-12-01 North River Valley (NR) 700 flat 17.5 9-13-01 North River Valley (NR) 647 flat 17.0 9-26-01 North River Valley (NR) 647 flat 14.0
Soil temperature station 1
4-22-01
Ramsey's Draft (Click to enlarge)
Soil temperature station 1
4-22-01
Ramsey's Draft. Note Probe. (Click to enlarge)
Oak and Hickory Ridge Forest, 4-30-01
Note leafing-out gradient (Click to enlarge)
Mesic Slope Forest
4-30-01. Note leafing-out gradient.
Disregard Acer platanoides in foreground. (Click to enlarge)
Soil and water temperatures for Ramsey's Draft,
Virginia. Circles indicate median soil temperatures, triangles single value
water temperatures of a Deep-source Spring. The precision of the temperature readings is + or -- 0.5 deg C.
Median soil temperatures for a Oak- Hickory Ridge
Forest in the Shenandoah Valley, Virginia. The precision of the temperature readings is + or -- 0.5 deg C. The Ramsey's Draft soil
temperature trend is shown for comparison.
Median soil temperatures for a Mesic Slope Forest
in the Shenandoah Valley, Virginia. The precision of the temperature readings is + or -- 0.5 deg C. The Ramsey's Draft soil temperature
trend is shown for comparison.
Single value soil temperature values at various
locations in the Central Appalachians (see Table 4). The precision of the temperature readings is + or -- 0.5 deg C. The Ramsey's Draft
soil temperature trend is shown for comparison.
Summary
Acknowledgements
References
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